CHALLENGE OF THIRD WORLD DEVELOPMENT A Third World Country Report of Iraq Name Dr. Rasool Nafisi Sociology 300 A term paper presented to the General Studies Department Strayer University Online in partial fulfillment for the completion of Sociology 300 General Studies Department (Sociology) Strayer University Online August 2011 TABLE OF CONTENTS Dependency and Modernization Theories…………………………………………………… 4 Religion and Politics……………………………………………………………………………………………… 5 Democracy and Dictatorship…………………………………………….. …………………….. 6 Ethnic- Cultural Divisions………………………………………………………………………… 7 Women and Development………………….. ………………………………………………………………. 8 Global Issues……………………………………………………………………………………………… 9 Revolutionary Change…………………………………………. ………………………………………………….. 10 Soldiers and Politics…………………………………. ………………………………………………………….. 11 Political Economy……………………………………………………………………………………………12 Conclusion………… ………………………………………………………………………………. 13 References…………………………………………………………………………………………. 14 Dependency and Modernization Theories Dependency theory is defined as a theory that attributed Third World underdevelopment to its economic and political dependence on the advanced industrial nations, also known as the core or First World Nations (Handelman, p. 9). Moreover, Theotonio Dos Santos (1971) describes dependency as a “historical condition which shapes a certain structure of the world economy such that it favors some countries to the detriment of others and limits the development possibilities of the subordinate economies. ” (p. 226). Conversely, the modernization theory contends that “developing nations had to acquire modern cultural values and create modern political and economic institutions. ” (Handelman, p. 16). The transformation of a nation’s traditional cultures is considered an imperative factor for the assimilation of modernization.
To be effective in the modernization theory “…theorists identified education, urbanization, and the spread of mass media as the central agents of change. ” (Handelman, p. 16). The modernization and dependency theories apply to the nation of Iraq, however, only slightly. Although, the recent events in Iraq have indicated that there is a shift toward modernization, the nation still presents situations where it is dependent on outside influences, politically and militarily. This is why I think the modernization theory, as well as the dependency theory explains the current events in Iraq.
Still to this very day, there is a dependency on United States military strength to train the Iraqi military forces for self reliance in an ongoing civil war with Al-Qaeda Muslim terrorists. The Iraqi culture has been influenced by the western world through mediums such as television and movies, but Iraq has not shed its founding cultural values, as indicated by the modernization theory. Outside influences, namely the United States, have even tried to influence a foreign form of government on to Iraq in the form of democracy; but the transition is a slow task. Religion and Politics
The definition of the impact of religion on politics, according to Handelman describes that “most Americans accept a constitutional separation between the church and state as the normal state of affairs. ” However, this very idea is not so apparent in Less Developed Countries (LDC). Handelman states, “Religion is even more firmly embedded in many Third World cultures, and its impact on politics is correspondingly more pronounced. ” Religion, in some regions of the world, is so influential to politics that the religion and political structure are not mutually exclusive.
Different religions have varying degrees of impact on a nation’s political system. The religion of Islam is more apt to integrate with national political policies than Hinduism or Buddhism, which have considerably less influence on national politics. In Iraq, the predominant religion is Islam, which is practiced by about 97 percent of the population. Although, not necessarily an Islamic state in the political sense, the Islamic religion in Iraq does provide sources of doctrine to further advocate political goals.
The Shi’a and Sunni are the two main Muslim sects in Iraq, with about 80 to 90 percent being Shi’a. Religion and politics are so closely amalgamated in Iraq that the influence of religious sect leaders will directly affect political policies. The Shi’a sect is so influential in Iraqi politics that in 2010 it was four seats short of garnering and completing an absolute majority rule within the Iraqi Parliament, under the party name Iraqi National Alliance, which is a combination of Iraq’s two most powerful Shi’a groups.
Democracy and Dictatorship In the most basic sense, democracy can be defined as a system dominated by elections. Handelman states that democracy can be defined as, “… a political system that holds fair, contested elections on a regular basis, with universal adult suffrage. ” (Handelman, p. 30). Additionally, Handleman offers up another, more thorough, definition of democracy that fully explains the intricacies of the ideology. Handelman expresses, It is a political system that conforms to the following conditions: most of the country’s leading government officials are elected, there is universal or near universal suffrage; elections are largely free of fraud and outside manipulation; opposition-party candidates have a realistic chance of being elected to important national offices; and civil liberties–including minority rights—are respected, with guarantees of free speech, free assembly, free press (media), and freedom of religion. (p. 31). When a nation undergoes a democratic transition they move from an authoritarian to a democratic government.
This transition is onset when, “an authoritarian government shows the first observable signs of collapsing or of negotiating its departure from power. [And] ends when the first freely elected government takes office. ” (Handelman, p. 32). A nation cannot become democratically consolidated until there is a widespread acceptance of democratic values, and practices demonstrated by all politically influential groups of the society. As recent as 2006, Iraq transitioned to a fully democratic nation; although, prior to this transition, Iraq was portrayed to be governed by a dictatorship style regime.
However, this was not the case. Under the previous government, the Ba’ath Party, the fundamental ideology was designed to foster a strong sense of Arab socialism. Iraq is now a federal parliamentary representative democratic republic. The nation’s newly enacted constitution guarantees basic human rights, which provides proof to Handelman’s definition of a full democracy. Also, all of the officials within the federal democratic republic are elected officials, which is yet another telling sign that the nation has embraced democracy. Ethnic-Cultural Divisions
Ethnicity can be defined as a “…social construction—a way that certain groups have come to view themselves over time as distinct from others—rather than inherent or primordial characteristics. ” (Handelman, p. 97). Donald Rothchild (1983) further explains that it is these distinct ethnocentric qualities of history, value, and tradition which are at the forefront of many ethnic conflicts. (Rothchild, p. 20). Iraq is comprised of one majority ethnic group and five minority ethnic groups. The Arabs of Iraq constitute about 75 to 85 percent of the population, while the Kurds populate about 15 to 20 percent of the nation.
The remaining five percent of the population is composed of Turkomans, Assyrians, Armenians, and the Yazidi. Iraq seems to harbor many ethnic, as well as varied ethno-religious groups, that have contributed to ongoing civil and ethnic wars that are attributed to conflicts of political power, religion, economics, ethnicity, and control of territory and resources. The varied groups and their internal conflicts include: the Iraqi Sunni Arab versus the Shi’ite Arab, the Arab-Shi’ite versus the Shi’ite, and the Arabs versus the Kurds.
They are in one of the four possible forms of ethnic interaction: relative harmony, uneasy balance, enforced hierarchy, or systemic violence. (Handelman, p. 115). The conflicts of the Iraqi ethnic groups present indications of systemic violence according to Handelman’s views. He asserts that systemic violence has lead to mass violence, civil wars, innumerable deaths, refugee surges, and increased crime all as the result of ethnic resentments. These assertions were demonstrated through Iraq’s recent soft ethnic cleansings during 2006. 90,000 refugees fled Iraq to neighboring countries Syria, Iran, and Jordan amidst suicide bombings, Mosque bombings, and reprisal killings. Women and Development In Less Developed Countries females generally find labor in agricultural farming in rural areas, domestic service and low-wage manufacturing jobs in urban areas, which includes jobs like sweatshop assembly and maid service. Just recently, Iraq transitioned from an authoritarian government, under the reign of Sadaam Hussein, where women within the nation had little to no political voice, to an almost completely democratic government where women ave more of a voice. This new voice for women, however, is presently ineffective at tackling the real issues of inequality and gender misconceptions. Women account for almost 60 percent of the Iraqi population but their representation, in a male dominated government, is very limited. Albeit disproportionate, female representation into the Iraqi political system is a major achievement in the once authoritarian government. Under Iraq’s new constitutional government, enacted in 2009, women are mandated to occupy a 25 percent representation within the Council of Representatives, which consists of 325 seats.
The electoral process ensures that one in every three candidates selected is female. If the representation from the initial electoral process does not equal the constitutional quota representation of 25 percent, then a corrective process is utilized. Under this corrective process the females with the most votes that did not initially garner a seat will be moved to replace a male candidate. The representation of women into Iraq’s newly constructed Parliamentary government is a step in the right direction of democracy.
Nevertheless, this step has proved to be an inhibited step to complete female equality. Dr. Nawal al-Samarrai, Iraq’s Minister of Women’s Affairs, tried to advocate for women’s rights to provide services to widows and victims of violence. However, she faced bureaucratic obstacles and eventually resigned her position stating the irrelevancy of her position and the ministry’s “inability to provide women with any services… The ministry became an honorary one – rather than a ministry with real roles and tasks. ” Global Issue
The exponential global population growth has raised many questions about the sustainability of one of Earth’s most versatile resources–water. The multi-faceted manipulations of water are not so abundant or palatable to 1. 1 billion Third World country residents around the globe. Robert Griffiths says that, “Water consumption patterns in many regions are no longer sustainable. The damaging environmental consequences of water practices are growing rapidly. And the complex and dynamic linkages between water and other key resources-especially food and energy-are inadequately understood. ” (Griffiths, p. 145).
To combat the scarcity of hygienically clean water in Less Developed Countries (LDC), sometimes there is a commanding need for international intervention and aid. LDCs have neither the resources nor the time to provide sanitation and wide scale distribution of drinking water. The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) has provided extensive time and service into rebuilding the infrastructures of Iraq, which have included rebuilding sewer systems. Since 2003 USAID has distributed water purification tablets for the water sanitation needs of 2,500 Iraqi families to last the families one month.
In Baghdad, Iraq, USAID provided hygiene training to 66 teachers in addition to distributing hygiene kits and water sanitation tablets to over 200 displaced refugee families. The social, economic and political unrest within Iraq from 2003 onward spawned an international movement to provide aid and medical care. Canada provided over $300 million to Iraq to assist with reconstruction efforts. About half of Canada’s $300 million contribution went to initiatives that focused on governance, public finance reform, and rehabilitation of community services.
The other half of the contribution was utilized for social and economic development and to respond to humanitarian needs. Revolutionary Change Revolutionary change is a, “rapid, fundamental, and violent domestic change in the dominant values and myths of society, in its political institutions, social structure, leadership and government activity and policies,” explains Samuel Huntington. (Handelman, p. 220). James C. Davies suggested that revolutions are onset by dramatic downturns in the national economic climate while the country’s rising expectations are no longer fulfilled by a country’s declining economy.
This was precisely the case during Iraq’s revolution of 1958. Iraq was enduring an economic recession with reckless inflation and decreasing standards of living. The leadership was in constant battle on issues concerning the country’s welfare, economic progression, standards of living, and infrastructure development. At the time, the Western nations of Great Britain and the United States had a dominating impact on Iraqi governance to include, Iraqi national and regional politics, and economic and reform policies.
The Free Officers organized and executed an overthrow of an oppressive monarch government led by King Faisal II and Prime Minister Nuri al-Said who were accused of cooperating with Western imperialism. After the seizure of political offices in 1958 Free Officer leaders, Colonel Abdul Salam Arif and Brigadier General Abdul Karim Qasim, denounced an imperialistic government and instituted a three person sovereignty council with representation from Iraq’s three main ethnic groups: the Shi’a, Sunni, and the Kurds.
Since the 1958 Iraq revolution there have failed to be any significant fully exacerbated revolutions, although there have been a few civil uprisings. In 1991, the uprisings all over Iraq were a result of two wars within 10 years and the destruction left on the economy, lifestyle, and morale of the Iraqi people. More recently, in 2011, The Cable News Network (CNN) reported that protests were a result of citizens that were, “angry about corruption, the quality of basic service, a crumbling infrastructure and high unemployment, particularly on a local level. Soldiers and Politics Military organizations are likely to interfere in national politics for two reasons. The first of these reasons being intrinsic characteristics that define the military regime. Characteristics such as class origin, levels of education, internal organization, and ideological workings all provide organizational justification to why the military would intervene in national politics. The second reason why the military would interfere in national politics is not quite as focused on the military group as it is the civilian government.
Military intervention is more prone to happen when there is a weak foundational governing body with lack of support from the general public and political parties. Intervention is usually withdrawn by the military voluntarily. The military will relinquish their temporary power to a more capable and competent government when they have completed their governmental objective. Handelman also indicates that deteriorating economic conditions, extended rule, and unpopular public opinion also contribute to reasons for military withdrawal from governmental interference. p. 268) Iraq has, not only, undergone domestic military political interference, as with the Revolution of 1958 but Iraq has even been influenced by foreign governments hoping to offer political advice to a warring country. The toppling of the repressive regime of Sadaam Hussein was orchestrated from foreign intervention and international military efforts. After the defeat of Hussein’s regime in 2003, the United States military, to this day, maintained a military presence to empower and rebuild a damaged and recuperating government and military. Political Economy
Martin Staniland describes political economy as “how politics determines aspects of the economy, and how economic institutions determine the political process, and the dynamic interaction between the two forces. ” (Handelman, p. 276). There are a number of different theories and applications of interactions between politics and the economy, none of which can be absolutely correct for every nation. Some nations have even used a combination of theories to provide the most optimal economic growth for its citizens. Under a command economy, the economy is centralized and the state controls a majority of trade, factories, banks, and production.
This type of interaction between economics and politics provided the most equality in income distribution through all social classes. Statism gives most of the economic activity to the private sector but owns strategic enterprises that include railroads, petroleum companies, steel mills, and electric power plants. Regulatory states do not interfere with the economic marketplace except to ensure certain limited goals, such as banking regulation. Developmental states have an active stance in the economy to guide and promote substantive goals like full employment and energy self-sufficiency.
Iraq’s economy relies heavily on the oil sector like many other nations within the Middle East. The country is currently transitioning from a command economy, while under the rule of Sadaam Hussein, to a mixed free market economy. Conclusion The ethnic violence in Iraq could be attributed to a variety of misunderstandings, both politically, and religiously. The Shi’a and Sunni religious sects are so similar yet they are so distinctly separated. They believe in the same God and almost practice their religion in the same manners.
However, the belief of the rightful successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad, has caused great conflict and religious turmoil for many years. Sectarian violence in Iraq has caused many great leaders, foreign and domestic, to take notice and take responsibility for violent acts that tiptoe the undercurrents of a civil war. Powerful heads of Shi’a, Sunni, and the United States organizations have recognized and understood that sectarian violence still persists and continues to be a threatening factor to the social, economical, political progress of this nation.
The democratization of the nation has benefited the nation almost immediately, in terms of relative country timelines. A few years after Sadaam Hussein’s defeat, democracy shook hands with Islamic culture and empowered women with the right to vote and hold significant political leadership positions. Although, the female voice is politically meek at the present moment, in due time Iraqi women will roar from the podium for equality, not just for females, but for all genders, religions, and beliefs. The deteriorating and humbling characteristics of a Third World Country are not so necessarily apparent within this infantile democratic nation.
The war torn towns and freedom oppressed souls have not been distraught by the internal workings of a previously authoritarian style government. The fight for freedom, the quest for equality, the longing for political relevance, and the pursuit of a thriving competitive economy have motivated the nation to continuously drudge through a down trodden path. However, the slow and treacherous path to freedom and equality has rewarded Iraq with the spoils of war and the liberties of victory. References Davis, E. , (2008). Reflections on Religion and Politics in Post-Ba’thist Iraq. Retrieved from http://www. eden. rutgers. du/~spath/351/Readings/TAARII%20-%20Reflections%20on%20Religion%20&%20Politics%20in%20Post-Baathist%20Iraq. pdf Handelman, H. (2011). The Challenge of Third World Development. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Khomeini, I. , (n. d. ). Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist. Retrieved from http://www. alislam. org/islamicgovernment http://www. bbc. co. uk/news/10294271 (17 aug) http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Iraqi_Transitional_Government (aug 18) http://www. state. gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6804. htm http://www. nationsencyclopedia. com/Asia-and-Oceania/Iraq-ETHNIC-GROUPS. html (19 aug) http://www. omw. org/warreport/fulltext/0704cordesman. pdf (19 Aug) http://www. fairvote. org/iraq-s-2010-parliamentary-election4 (24 Aug) Iraq’s 2010 Parliamentary Election – Part 4: Iraqi Women’s Political Reality http://www. niqash. org/content. php? contentTypeID=74&id=2403&lang=0 (24 aug) women leaders struggle for female rights http://csis. org/files/media/csis/pubs/120614_iraq_update. pdf (17 Aug) Iraq’s Sectarian and Ethnic Violence and the Evolving Insurgency Developments through mid-December 2006 http://www. usaid. gov/iraq/ Assistance for Iraq (2 Sep) http://www. acdi-cida. gc. ca/iraq 2 Sep
